HERPES VAX SHOWS PROMISE.

Electron micrograph of herpes simplex virusFLICKR, NIAIDResearchers have traditionally designed vaccines against herpes simplex virus type 2 (HSV-2) to elicit antibodies that targeted the viral surface protein called glycoprotein D (gD-2), which the virus uses to enter host cells. But by deleting gD-2 from the viral genome, William Jacobs of the Albert Einstein College of Medicine and his colleagues not only rendered the virus unable to infect cells, they were able to develop a vaccine that forced the murine immune system to produce antibodies that recognize different viral targets.

“We had a hunch that gD-2 might be masking other viral antigens, and that by removing this dominant protein we would expose those previously masked antigens to the immune system,” Jacobs said in astatement.

Using the gD-2–lacking virus to immunize mice, the researchers elicited complete protection against wild-type HSV-2, both when the animals were challenged intravaginally or through the skin. Importantly, the researchers, who published their results this week (March 10) in eLife, found no evidence of latent HSV-2 lingering in the vaccinated mice.

“A dominant protein like that is like a loud person in a room; other people speaking can’t be heard,” coauthor Betsy Herold, a pediatric infectious disease doctor at Einstein, told Science News, drawing the analogy to gD-2 and other viral antigens.

“Our findings challenge the existing dogma that says an effective herpes vaccine must stimulate neutralizing antibodies against gD-2,” Jacobs said in the statement. “It’s almost as if the virus evolved gD-2 specifically to hide the other antigens; gD-2 turns out to be a Trojan horse that misleads the immune system.”

TAKEN FROM- THE SCIENTIST

Packaging process for genes discovery

BMB Department’s B. Franklin Pugh, the Willaman Chair in Molecular Biology, led a team of scientists to develop a novel laboratory procedure to accomplish new research.  This group of scientists at Penn State University achieved a major milestone in the attempt to assemble, in a test tube, entire chromosomes from their component parts.

The achievement reveals the process a cell uses to package the basic building blocks of an organism's entire genetic code -- its genome. The evidence provided by early research with the new procedure overturns three previous theories of the genome-packaging process and opens the door to a new era of genome-wide biochemistry research. A paper describing the team's achievement was published in the journal Science in May 2011.

The team's research is designed to reveal the construction process for the chromosome -- the super-compressed marvel of molecular packaging that contains all an organism's DNA and associated proteins. "Our procedure starts with an entire genome of DNA from yeast cells that we propagate through bacteria, then purify, "Pugh said. "Next, we add equal parts of pure histones, the protein building blocks of chromosomes. Then we allow the assembly process to begin."

This work is significant because it now allows scientists to experimentally probe the structure and function of chromosomes and their component genes in ways that simply were off limits before. "The cell protects chromosomes from the outside environment, including probing scientists," Dr. Pugh explained. "We now have a way to study the components of the chromosome outside the protective confines of the cell." Because defects in chromatin organization lead to medical problems -- including certain cancers and developmental disorders -- more direct access to chromatin in its properly organized state is expected to help hasten the search for remedies to many human diseases.

First Chromatin Protein-Nucleosome Structure

BMB scientists, led by Song Tan, are the first to determine the 3D structure of a chromatin protein interacting with the nucleosome.

RCC1 chromatin enzyme interacting with the nucleosome. Credit: Song Tan Lab

BMB scientists led by Song Tan are the first to determine the 3D structure of a chromatin protein interacting with the nucleosome. Like beads on a string, nucleosomes are complexes of densely packaged DNA wrapped around proteins called histones. The X-ray crystallography structure at 2.9A resolution shows the Drosophilia chromatin protein RCC1 bound to the opposite sides of the nucleosome like tricycle pedals.  This research is a major breakthrough toward understanding how genes coded on the DNA within the nucleosome are accessed and controlled, opening the prospect for new therapeutics against human diseases.

Development of materials for record efficiency polymer solar cells

A research team led by Prof. He Yan (Chemistry) has developed a family of polymer and fullerene materials that enabled multiple cases of high-efficiency polymer solar cells. The team discovered a material design motif that led to three new polymers and over ten high-performance material combinations yielding solar cell efficiencies of up to 10.8%, a new record for single-junction polymer solar cells. In a paper published recently in Nature Communications, Prof. Yan and his collaborators from North Carolina State University show that the temperature dependent aggregation properties of the polymers is the key to creating highly efficient polymer solar cells that can be mass produced relatively cheaply. These findings open the door to experimentation with different chemical mixtures that comprise the active layers of the cells. Prof Yan’s group also achieved record efficiencies in other sub-categories of organic solar cells. Innovations in new acceptor materials have greatly broadened material choices for organic solar cells and will facilitate the development of high-efficiency, low-cost solar cells in the long run. Three important papers describing these results have been published in Advanced Materials and Energy and Environmental Science

Bacterium - The First Kingdom of Microorganisms

Bacteria is one of the first organisms to appear in Earth. These have different shapes, sizes and functions. These organisms lack nucleus, that is they are also called prokaryotes. These were discovered by Anton Van Leeuwenhoek by his self made microscope. These bacteria are found in every places of Earth, even on our skin. Most of these bacteria are useful and rest are pathogens.

Discovery of Bacterium

Although bacteria originated on earth about 4 billion years ago, these were discovered only in 1675 by Anton Van Leeuwenhoek by his self designed microscope. He observed these rod shaped ( other shapes of these bacteria were discovered later ) bacteria and their movement and called them tiny animalcules as they behaved like animals.

Study of Bacteria

Study of bacteria is bacteriology. It is important for making food products, in agriculture, e.t.c. It involves behavior, classification, functions, uses, pathogenic reactions and its characteristics. A person in the field of Bacteriology is a Bacteriologist.  

Structure of Bacterium

The cells of bacteria are surrounded by a plasma or cell membrane. This membrane holds the cytoplasm and other proteins. These cells of bacteria lack nucleus, mitochondria, Golgi System and other common organelles found in animal and plant cells. So, these bacteria are called prokaryotes.

Reproduction

Bacteria reproduce by a process called binary fission having two process, mitosis and meiosis. This is an asexual reproduction. In mitosis, two identical diploid cells are produced from one diploid where as in meiosis, four different haploid  cells are produced from one diploid. To study the growth of bacteria, a cultural medium like PDA ( potato dextrose  agar ) or yeast extract is used. These bacteria are kept in agar plates and placed inside an incubator having room temperature (27 C). After one or two days, we can see the growth and study the process how it reproduces. 

Pathogenic Bacteria

                                                                           Bacillus

Pathogenic bacteria are disease causing bacteria. Some diseases caused by bacteria are  tetanus, typhoid fever, diphtheria, syphilis, dysentery, cholera, tuberculosis and various other diseases.
Some pathogenic bacteria are Clostridium botulinum, Clostridium tetani, Streptococcus, Staphylococcus,  Bacillus anthracis, e.t.c These bacteria not only cause diseases to humans, but also to animals and plants. Anthrax is a disease caused by Bacillus to animals. Leaf spot is a disease caused to plants by Pseudomonas. All these bacteria are very less when compared to useful bacteria.

Useful Bacteria

                                                                    Pseudomonas

Many bacteria are useful. These are used in the production of curd where  Lactobacillus converts the sugar into lactose. Acetobacter is used in vinegar production as it produces acetic acid. Bacteria is used to produce antibiotics also. Rhizobium is a bacteria used in farms as it converts atmospheric nitrogen into nitrites and nitrates. Various bacteria like Bacillus, Pseudomonas, nitrobacter are responsible for nitrogen cycle. These are used in various industries also. From this, we see that useful bacteria are more than pathogenic bacteria.
       
Latest Discoveries

                                                           

The latest discovered Burrowing Bacteria burrows into plant roots and delivers nitrogen. This is a very useful bacteria and this can be used instead of fertilizers.
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Now, see the following video how a bacteria in saliva is seen through microscope:

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                                                                                                                        Article by- M. Santosh

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